1. Introduction

Farmers are increasingly vulnerable to climate impacts, because their livelihoods depend on climate stability and natural resources (Azzahra et al., 2021; Irawan, 2023; Takama et al., 2017). While mitigating climate change is important to reduce future risks, effective adaptation is vital for farmers’ livelihoods and food security (IPCC, 2022).

Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is promoted to boost farmers’ capacity to cope with hazards and unpredictable weather while at the same time delivering nature-positive outcomes (Abdelmagied & Mpheshea, 2020). This brief focuses on the implementation of ecosystem-based adaptation at the interface between science and action.

We draw on lessons learned from a field visit to monitor the progress and outcomes of an EbA-Enhanced Climate Field School (the EECCLiRe project 2023-2025) with coffee-producing farmers in Ruteng, Manggarai Regency, and Bajawa, Ngada Regency in Flores, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia.

Approximately 300 000 people depend on coffee production for their livelihoods in the area, which is renowned for its unique coffee beans. Yet farmers here, as elsewhere, are struggling with less predictable rainfall, pests and other hazards. The project aims to help them to adapt by integrating ecosystem-based adaptation principles, agroforestry, and climate information into climate field schools for coffee-producing farmers.

Our field visit focused on experiences of farmers in the implementation of the project. Our findings underscore the importance of sensitivity to not only ecological but also social, economic, cultural, and political contexts in designing and implementing ecosystem-based adaptation (Nalau et al., 2018; Woroniecki et al., 2019). While EbA discourse often highlights its co-benefits and positive impacts on both people and nature, this brief emphasizes that a broader, more holistic approach to EbA is important to reduce the risk of maladaptation.

A team of four people (including the author) conducted the field visit. To reduce bias, none of the team members were directly involved in implementing the project. In June 2024, the team visited Ruteng and Bajawa. We conducted a series of focus group discussions with 22 farmers (12 men and 10 women) and 10 extension workers (four men and six women) who participated in the project and volunteered to take part in the monitoring activities. We also carried out two expert interviews: one with a man and a woman representing a local non-profit organization in Bajawa, and another with two men from a coffee farmers’ cooperative in Ruteng. All activities were conducted in Bahasa Indonesia and translated into English.

2. Climate change and coffee farming in Flores, Indonesia

The impacts of climate change on coffee farming in Flores are evident in the everyday experience of farmers, extension workers, and local organizations in the fields, and have caused substantial disruption to coffee production systems. The impacts are further magnified and complicated by other factors, such as the quality and availability of land, and changes in social dynamics.

2.1 Impacts of climate change

Changes in rainfall patterns

Rainy seasons that come later than usual and prolonged dry spells in periods that used to be wet planting seasons disrupt the delicate balance required for coffee cultivation, the flowering of the coffee plant, and the growth and health of shade trees that coffee plants rely on, all of which decrease the productivity and quality of the crop. More unpredictable rainfall also has negative impacts on the drying and processing of the harvested beans.

Pests and diseases

Warmer temperatures and shifting weather patterns increase pests and diseases that affect coffee and other crops. Farmers report increased costs for pest control, straining their resources, and the use of chemical pesticides on their farms, harming the local environment. They also report that some pests and diseases are new and unfamiliar to them.

Hazards and disasters

Extreme weather events such as droughts and storms have caused significant damage to coffee production. For example, a prolonged drought in 2017 wiped out the coffee harvest in Bajawa, and a storm in 2020 reduced farmers’ incomes by 80%. Hazards of such intensity were new to farmers and have since become more frequent, according to the discussions. In response to these events, many farmers have transitioned from coffee farming to horticulture, providing a more immediate source of income. This transition, however, could disrupt the coffee market and the future of Flores coffee, which is well-known for its distinct flavour profiles.

2.2 Other drivers of climate vulnerability

While exposure to hazards and unpredictable weather directly impact coffee production, there are other drivers of vulnerability to such impacts, such as environmental degradation, development trends and social dynamics.

Soil degradation

In many coffee farms in Flores, particularly in Ruteng, farmers have reported declining nutrient levels in soil, due mainly to continuous cultivation. This results in reduced soil fertility, which negatively affects plant health and reduces coffee yields. Ageing shade trees and coffee plants also contribute to the decline in overall productivity.

Reduction of agricultural land

The availability of productive land for coffee farming has drastically reduced. According to the local NGO in Bajawa, productive coffee farming land has shrunk by more than half due to several factors. The most significant of these are urban expansion and infrastructure projects that encroach on agricultural land, while increasing commercial demands and livelihood pressures have led farmers to convert land from coffee plantations to horticulture.

Social dynamics

Shifts in labour and household dynamics further impact farms’ capacity to adapt to the growing challenges posed by climate change. Young people are more likely to leave farms and seek alternative livelihoods, and women are left to take care of farms while men migrate or find jobs outside of the community. As a result, some farming households do not have enough farm labour and incur additional costs to hire workers, while women can be overburdened by carrying out both care work farm work that is new to them.  

3. Integrating diverse knowledge systems for climate adaptation

Adapting to climate change can benefit from respecting and understanding the value of diverse knowledge systems and recognizing traditional knowledge as a legitimate and vital source of knowledge (Biskupska & Salamanca, 2020). Traditional knowledge encompasses ecological insights and practices passed down through generations (Berkes et al., 2000). These include, for instance, sustainable practices for managing soil fertility, pests and diseases, and biodiversity through agroforestry, nature-based practices, or the timing of agricultural activities based on seasonal cycles and environmental cues. These practices continue to prove valuable for current generations of farmers in Flores.

However, the impacts of climate change are challenging the relevance of some traditional practices. Farmers in Flores realize that traditional planting and harvesting calendars, for instance, are shifting due to altered weather patterns, making it difficult for farmers to rely solely on these time-tested methods.

Western science offers several opportunities. Through the field school, farmers recognize the value of western science in explaining how traditional practices work and why they may no longer apply under current climatic conditions. For example, daily and weekly weather forecasts can help farmers make more precise decisions about planting and harvesting times than traditional calendars may allow.

Practical knowledge offered by modern science can be particularly valuable for new farmers, including young people and women who inherit farms. Some new farmers reported that the Climate Field School has helped them to appreciate the value of both traditional and modern perspectives through learning scientific explanations behind traditional farming practices that have been passed down to them without explanation. In particular, they have gained new understanding of climate and weather patterns, pest and disease management, and sustainable agricultural techniques.

4. Challenges in integrating knowledge systems for ecosystem-based adaptation

It can, however, be challenging to recognize, respect and integrate traditional and scientific knowledge into EbA because of tensions between the two systems. At the same time, financial factors, limited access to essential tools and information, along with gender and generational dynamics, complicate the adoption of new practices.

4.1 Tensions between knowledge systems

For Flores farmers, spiritual beliefs and emotional attachments can be a particular source of tension. For instance, farmers at the Climate Field School learned a technique for rejuvenating coffee trees, which involves cutting the branches and the main body of an old tree. Many farmers whose coffee trees have been passed down from their grandparents find this practice distressing. In their culture, plants, like humans, are living beings with emotions and spirits. “Rejuvenating [cutting] feels like harming the spirit of the tree, which has been with us since our ancestors’ time,” one coffee farmer said. Farmers went on to share their emotional and spiritual attachment to the tree, which is celebrated yearly through ceremonies to express gratitude to the trees, soil, sun, wind, water, and all elements enabling their livelihoods. To address this challenge, the field school uses demonstration plots where coffee trees are rejuvenated and shown as evidence for the effectiveness of the method. This has helped some farmers realize that the trees can grow back, yet the emotional attachment remains a barrier for others.

Additionally, rejuvenated trees can take up to two years to regrow fully, during which farmers would have no income. As a result, farmers prefer methods with proven success over untested new approaches. Immediate economic interest is often prioritized over long-term benefits, making it challenging to adopt new practices without clear, short-term advantages. However, where farmers have complementary sources of income, or access to projects that provide cash assistance during the transition period, these barriers are reduced.

At the same time, livelihood diversification and immediate economic needs can pull farmers away from traditional practices, leaving them with less time to maintain and transmit those practices. For instance, an extension worker who joined the field school observed that, when dealing with pests, many farmers have dropped traditional methods that combine rituals and natural practices in favour of chemicals that show immediate results while requiring less time and labour. Market pressures and commercial demands further exacerbate this erosion as farmers respond to and livelihood needs (as illustrated by the shift from farming coffee to horticulture). Extension workers have been working alongside farmers to convince them of the value of traditional practices and the long-term harm of chemicals.

4.2 Enabling resources

Access to easy-to-understand and actionable climate information is crucial for effective climate adaptation. The EECCLiRe project tackles this need by connecting farmers to the latest weather information from the Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) through the WhatsApp application. But the services that farmers rely on to deliver timely weather forecasts and other critical information, including last-mile infrastructure such as smartphones and stable internet connections, are beyond the control of the project (Mittal & Hariharan, 2018; Nidumolu et al., 2020). Many rural areas lack this infrastructure, creating a barrier to accessing information. In one focus group discussion with 14 people (7 men and 7 women), only 3 men had a smartphone. Our team experienced unstable signals in the village, which could make it difficult to use WhatsApp information.

Additionally, farmers need access to essential tools such as pruning scissors and other agricultural equipment. The costs of these tools can be a barrier to adopting new practices (Atube et al., 2021; Devkota et al., 2018). Furthermore, cultural expenditure on traditional ceremonies can take precedence over investing in farm tools.

Addressing these infrastructure needs is vital for supporting farmers in adopting new practices and improving their resilience to climate change. It also helps to mitigate the risk that adaptive interventions will deepen inequality, in situations where better-off farmers have more access to resources to adopt adaptive practices.

4.3 Gender dynamics and generational differences

Gender and social dynamics play a role in adopting new knowledge and practices (Le Dang et al., 2013; Mersha & Van Laerhoven, 2016; Nguyen et al., 2021). During our visit, extension workers who participated in the field school reported that, in their experience in conducting training and monitoring, women are more open to new knowledge. Compared to men, women farmers are more likely to stay until the end of a training program and apply new farming practices. However, in many programs and projects, men frequently remain the decision-makers and primary beneficiaries of training and interventions, limiting the impact of new knowledge on actual farming practice.

Furthermore, in the context of increasing mobility and migration in Flores, women are left in charge of the fields as men find jobs outside of their villages on a seasonal basis. Thus, adaptation requires ensuring family members have adequate access to information and resources to adapt to climate change while maintaining coffee production.

Meanwhile, younger farmers with higher education and access to information are also more receptive to new technologies and practices, but they are less likely to continue farming due to the allure of alternative livelihoods in urban areas. In a focus group discussion, two young men described that while they appreciate the importance of coffee farming in their culture and ancestral roots, its precarious income makes it less appealing than non-agricultural livelihoods. The young farmers also reflected that talking to their elders and participating in the kind of training offered at the Climate Field School gives them more confidence in agriculture. Yet, as the next generation, they remain uncertain about continuing small-scale farming like their parents, and this uncertainty is a potential barrier for younger farmers to invest in adapting their farming practices.

5. Lessons learned

The insights gained from the ecosystem-based adaptation project EECCLiRe in Flores highlight the need to recognize and respect diverse knowledge systems to reduce climate vulnerability among farmers. Adaptation approaches, including ecosystem-based practices, must consider not only advanced scientific evidence but also traditional knowledge to arrive at best practices that are actionable and locally and culturally relevant. Furthermore, it is important to recognize and address financial, cultural, economic, and infrastructural barriers, as well as social dynamics that hinder the transition to climate-resilient practices. It ensures that solutions are accessible and beneficial to all and not a privileged few.

By recognizing the value of both traditional and scientific knowledge, policies can better support farmers in balancing immediate economic needs with long-term resilience strategies. Investment in rural infrastructure, tools, and accessible information will empower communities to make informed decisions.

Diverse income sources and cash assistance can play an important role in both maintaining beneficial traditional practices and transitioning to modern approaches. Moreover, gender-sensitive and youth-focused approaches must be prioritized to enhance participation and engagement in climate adaptation efforts. Ensuring that the diverse knowledge systems of local communities are preserved and strengthened is vital for a sustainable and resilient agricultural future in Flores.

Based on our monitoring visit and discussions with farmers, extension workers and relevant local organizations, we argue that the following actions are important for effective ecosystem-based adaptation and to reduce the risk of maladaptation. These actions are grouped into two broad areas: project design and implementation; and gender equality and inclusion.

5.1 Project design and implementation

• Engage farmers directly and early in designing and implementing ecosystem-based adaptation projects to recognize diverse knowledge systems and values, and to minimize conflicts between knowledge systems that hinder the uptake of new practices.
• Design monitoring, evaluation and learning mechanisms that can help integrate insights on implementation into a project as it progresses.
• Engage farmers to take stock of potential behavioural, financial and infrastructure barriers to the uptake of new practices.
• Projects can address these barriers in the following ways:
  • Conduct hands-on training and demonstrations to show the feasibility of new practices.
  • Conduct regular follow-ups to identify and address last-mile barriers
  • Provide cash assistance and/or supporting complementary livelihood options to overcome economic barriers in adopting the most beneficial aspects of both traditional and modern approaches.
  • Make climate information actionable, so that farmers have access to information about weather patterns and change, as well as understanding how to take appropriate action.
  • Engage farmers in documenting weather patterns in the community to facilitate the development and adaptation of traditional knowledge.

5.2 Gender equality and social inclusion

• Integrate gender equality, disability and social inclusion (GEDSI) analysis prior to the design and during the implementation of EbA projects to better address GEDSI issues and ensure inclusive outcomes.
• Ensure diverse representation in projects and interventions, including gender and age, to promote the participation, leadership and empowerment of women and youth, who are crucial actors with the capacity to implement change, but who are often under-represented in training and other activities.
• Invest in activities higher up the value chain to make coffee production a more appealing and reliable livelihood. This is important for sustaining the engagement of future generations of coffee farmers. Young farmers in the project we monitored said that seeing good practices for themselves, and engaging more with elders in the community on the farm, helps them recognize and appreciate the value of farming. However, they also pointed to the need for further training and investment in activities beyond maintaining the farm, such as coffee tasting, barista training or eco-tourism, to make it a more economically viable livelihood option.

Acknowledgments

The insights in this brief were co-generated with 26 participants from Flores, including farmers, extension workers, and NGO representatives, alongside the monitoring team. The author thanks Fani Rahmawati, I Gusti Gde Mayun Bary Aditama Pradana, and Natalia Biskupska, members of the monitoring team, who co-led the discussions and Fani Rahmawati and I Gusti Gde Mayun Bary Aditama Pradana for providing Bahasa Indonesia-English interpretation during the visit. We are also grateful to the EECCLiRe project team, especially Albert Salamanca, Cynthia Crouse and Fabian Wiropranoto, for providing background information, facilitating the monitoring work and reviewing the paper. A special thanks goes to an anonymous reviewer for suggestions to sharpen the discussion.