1. Introduction

Since 2020, the authors have analysed deforestation and related policies in Colombia as part of ongoing research in several countries to determine whether these policies work together to combat deforestation, and if not, to identify the underlying obstacles. The brief’s results are described in more detail in the full case study report and several related scientific articles (Cárdenas-Vélez & Lobos-Alva, Unpublished manuscript; Shawoo et al., 2022) and book chapters (Cárdenas-Vélez & Lobos-Alva, 2023). More information on this research can be found on the program website.

Deforestation is a lens through which policy coherence and social challenges can be analysed, as it hinders sustainable development, fuels social conflict and exacerbates inequality. Colombia struggles to balance trade-offs between economic, social and environmental goals. This conflict contributes to inconsistencies in policy formulation and implementation, which can hinder progress toward achieving deforestation reduction goals.

The country’s diverse ecosystems, including the Amazon rainforest and the Andean cloud forests, have been under threat due to agricultural expansion, illegal logging, mining and infrastructure development. From 2002 to 2023 Colombia lost 1.99 million hectares of primary forest, and 5.3 million hectares of total forest cover (GFW, 2024).

The 2030 Agenda considers deforestation as one of the crucial issues we need to manage to achieve sustainable development, under Goal 15: “protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss”. Failure to address deforestation jeopardizes the achievement of the SDGs and climate-related goals. Between 2013 and 2020, increases in deforestation in Colombia accounted for 1.24 gigatons of CO₂. The need to steeply reduce these emissions lies at the heart of the country’s nationally determined contribution under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. In terms of the SDGs, the current national development plan has two fundamental environmental goals: contain deforestation and restore 750 000 ha of lost ecosystems by 2030. To support these goals, the government has continued ongoing efforts to address deforestation, including implementing policies and initiatives to protect forests, promote sustainable land use practices, and involve local communities in conservation efforts. These efforts have yielded mixed results.

This brief aims to highlight the how actors can collaborate to implement successful strategies to combat deforestation, promote sustainable land use and foster economic development. It also identifies roadblocks preventing partnerships, knowledge-sharing and concerted efforts to tackle this complex issue.

2. Issue and methodology

To understand deforestation in Colombia, it is necessary to untangle a complicated history of conflict and power. We must also investigate its multiple drivers, including the policy landscape, institutional arrangements, social and economic inequalities, and the influence of powerful economic interests.

To analyse this phenomenon, we apply a framework that considers the broader political context to explore how policy issues rely on ideas, institutions and interests (often referred to as the ‘three Is’) (Shawoo et al., 2022). This framework illuminates the factors that help explain the level of policy coherence in any given policy field. Ideas refer to how policy problems, solutions, and coherence are defined and interpreted, as well as how goals are prioritized. Institutions refer to government capacities, governance structures, laws, policies and responsibilities. Interests cover the preferences and agendas actors hold, power dynamics, and resource allocation.

A combination of ideology, vested interests and institutional rigidity shape policy processes and outcomes horizontally (between ministries and departments) and vertically (between national, regional and municipal governance levels), as well as between policy objectives and their implementation.

In this brief, we look at land use and deforestation from a policy and institutional perspective to assess how land use policies integrate climate and sustainable development, how these are implemented, and who the main actors are. Finally, we recommend how to improve the coherence of policies and strategies.

This research is based on the review of literature and policies from the last decade, a stakeholder mapping exercise, interviews with key actors held in February and March 2023, and a focused group discussion workshop held in Bogotá 29 May 2023. We also use SDG Synergies, a tool for understanding how policy areas and targets interact, using systems thinking. This analysis allowed us to assess how deforestation and land use-related policies interact with the SDGs and climate-related goals to determine opportunities for synergies and identify potential trade-offs. The policies analysed are presented in Table 1.

3. Findings

Synergies and trade-offs between deforestation and land use-related policies

Figure 1 shows the interactions between 25 policies included in our analysis. When a row or a column has a dark colour or a higher total, it may correspond to a highly influential (row totals) or highly influenced (column totals) policy. For example, Colombia’s current mining legislation (policy 20) conflicts with other objectives, preventing their progress, as reflected in row 20, which shows it restricts several other policies. In contrast, the restructuring and development of sustainable agricultural production processes (policy 12) is a highly influenced policy, meaning it is prone to being positively or negatively affected by other policies, which is reflected in a high column total (see Figure 1 for both scores).

The interactions between the selected public policies for deforestation and land use, the SDGs, and climate goals in Colombia are mostly positive (Figure 1), meaning they mutually boost each other. Figure 1 also shows that of the 600 interactions evaluated, only 48 (8%) resulted in trade-offs, impeding the success of other policies. On the other hand, 378 (63%) interactions were rated as promoters, and 174 (29%) interactions were neutral (categorized as “no influence”).

There are also several relevant synergies between current climate change policies and the policies for managing biodiversity and ecosystem services in Colombia. Our findings suggest that while Colombia has not yet fully developed its institutional capacity for climate change mitigation and adaptation, there is significant potential for improvement. By maximizing the synergies between the SDGs and broader climate targets, Colombia can not only promote sustainable forest management but also strengthen its institutions to more effectively address climate challenges. This alignment would enhance the country’s ability to implement policies, coordinate across sectors, and achieve long-term sustainability and resilience. Interviewed experts also highlighted potential connections and mutual benefits that exist between the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (CBD & UNEP, 2010), the SDGs, and the Paris Agreement.

However, current Colombian mining laws (policy 20) (MinMinas, 2001) conflict with two of the studied policies in particular:

• Avoid deforestation of natural forest and promoting economic development of communities and ethnic groups (policy 5) (Minambiente, 2012).
• Impacts of mining on the ecosystems of the Colombian territory (policy 24), which states that territorial-municipal entities can regulate the use of their land and guarantee environmental protection, even prohibiting mining activity (Minambiente, 2016).

For more than a decade, communities have sought a public policy that harmonizes the conservation of national parks with the rights of peasants to exploit natural resources within these areas. Progress has been made through agreements like the Agreement for Prosperity 079 of 2022, which assigns the state responsibility for preventing and controlling environmental degradation while requiring administrative authorities to coordinate these efforts (Minambiente, 2022a). However, the inclusion of Article Seven in the current National Development Plan, which allowed for agreements with the peasant population in protected areas, has not been effectively implemented (DNP, 2018). As a result, many local communities feel sidelined in conservation efforts, increasing tensions between the state and peasant populations. Moreover, the enforcement actions under Operation Artemisa (Box 1), aimed at halting deforestation, have violated these agreements, generating territorial conflicts that banish people from their homes and undermine community trust in the state. These challenges highlight the urgent need for policies that genuinely incorporate local voices and reconcile environmental goals with the rights of marginalized communities.

Drivers of incoherence

Our research, including literature review, expert interviews and a multi-stakeholder forum, found that political agendas, institutional weaknesses and vested interests contribute equally to policy incoherence in Colombia. The influence of powerful interests within the agricultural and mining sectors is pervasive, as well as the counterproductive actions to combat deforestation, which hinders progress and prioritizes economic benefits over environmental protection.

In terms of social inequality, the current policy framework for deforestation lacks community involvement in decision-making processes. Local communities are mostly at the receiving end of policy impacts, as in the example of Operation Artemisa. Similar examples can be found in the implementation of mining laws.

A key obstacle to fighting deforestation is the low coordination and collaboration between government agencies and stakeholders. Unequal distribution of financial resources among ministries, with the fewest resources given to the environment and scientific research sectors, highlight the government’s low prioritization of these issues, compared to other sectors.

Finally, existing policies do not support enhanced coordination. Policies such as CONPES 4021 and Decree 1257 of 2017 that created the Intersectoral Commission for the Control of Deforestation and the Integral Management for the Protection of Natural Forests do not effectively harmonize the different sectors and agendas involved in deforestation reduction, resulting in conflicting actions and limited progress (DNP, 2020). For instance, the deforestation caused by mining, combined with the strong mining restrictions intended to promote conservation, biodiversity, climate and sustainable development, underscore such conflict, making it a key sector to tackle to achieve policy coherence.

4. Policy recommendations

Addressing deforestation in Colombia requires a comprehensive and integrated approach that tackles the political, institutional and social drivers of the problem. Policy coherence can be undermined by competing interests and institutions, which can be mitigated if the government makes a concerted commitment to slowing deforestation.

We recommend the following actions:

• Cooperate with regional allies to achieve concrete deforestation goals. Brazil and other countries linked to the Amazon biome can be help tackle the issue of low political will. Monitoring and policy enforcement will only be possible through a concerted regional effort. The Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization offers a neutral platform to hold these discussions and plan specific joint actions.
• The SDGs, climate goals and equality-focused objectives must remain high on the policy agenda. This prioritization needs to be accompanied by adequate resources and national and local budget allocations. For instance, achieving ambitious goals like Colombia’s nationally determined contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement necessitates adequate technical expertise and comprehensive monitoring programs. Investing in equipment, personnel, and local-level monitoring systems is essential for effective implementation.
• Engaging communities affected by deforestation in policymaking processes is critical. By ensuring their voices are heard and their needs considered, Colombia can enhance the local ownership and effectiveness of policy interventions.
• Finally, policymakers, stakeholders, and international partners should prioritize addressing policy incoherence, strengthening institutional capacities, and aligning policies with the objectives outlined in Colombia’s NDC and the SDGs. This can be achieved, initially, by systematically reviewing interlinkages, synergies and trade-offs using available methodologies and tools focused on systems thinking, such as SDG Synergies.