Cities are often seen as greener places to live because people drive less and share energy infrastructure. However, when considering the full picture – including all the goods and services people buy and consume – city dwellers tend to have larger carbon footprints than people living in rural areas. Until now, most research has focused on a single point in time, making it difficult to understand how this relationship has changed over time.

This study calculates personal carbon footprints for people living at different levels of urban density across European countries, tracking changes from 1994 to 2020. The overall trend is positive: emissions have declined, and differences between countries have narrowed. However, despite these improvements, carbon footprints remain well above levels consistent with climate targets.

The picture differs across European regions. In Southern and Eastern Europe, city residents typically have higher carbon footprints than rural residents, although the difference has gradually narrowed. In Western Europe, the pattern is reversed, with urban residents having lower carbon footprints in most cases. The study also finds that the difference between urban and rural carbon footprints tends to decrease as national income levels rise. The drivers of these regional differences are analysed in detail, with a particular focus on transport and energy use. The findings suggest that although urban residents in Western Europe have lower carbon footprints overall, cities have become less carbon-efficient over time relative to rural areas.

The study helps clarify how where people live influences their carbon footprint, and how this relationship has changed over several decades.